Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Literature Review of Traditional Therapies and Emerging Treatment Frontiers.: Literature Review

Giorgio MANDALÀ; Sofia Mandalà; Luisa capuana

doi:10.58372/2835-6276.1307

Authors

Giorgio MANDALÀ
Sofia Mandalà
Luisa capuana

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.58372/2835-6276.1307

Abstract

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are pervasive neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by atypical behavioral features and significant heterogeneity in clinical presentation. The term "spectrum" highlights the variability in symptom frequency, intensity, and quality among affected individuals. ASD is recognized as one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental conditions, with an incidence of 1–1.5% in children. Diagnosis is multidisciplinary, relying on developmental history, behavioral observation, and standardized assessment tools, with early identification being crucial for optimal intervention. Traditional therapeutic approaches, particularly educational and habilitative interventions, aim to enhance adaptive functioning, communication, and social interaction. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) and the TEACCH program represent established evidence-based interventions, employing behavioral principles and structured teaching methods to address deficits and promote autonomy. Recent advances include non-invasive brain stimulation techniques targeting symptom remission by modulating neural activity in specific brain regions. This review summarizes the current literature on traditional therapies and explores emerging treatment frontiers for ASD.

References

Abujadi, C., Croarkin, P. E., Bellini, B. B., Brentani, H., Marcolin, M. A. (2018) Intermittent theta-burst transcranial magnetic stimulation for autism spectrum disorder: an open-label pilot study. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry. 40(3) https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2017-2279

American Psychiatric Association (2013). Manuale diagnostico e statistico dei disturbi mentali – Quinta edizione. DSM-5. Tr.it. Raffaello Cortina, Milano, 2015.

Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitorig Network Surveillance Year 2008 Principal Investigators, e Center for Disease Control and Preventions [2012], Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders-Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 14 sites, United States, 2008, in , 61, n 3, pp.1-19. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22456193/

Baird, G., Cass, H., Slonims, V. (2003). Diagnosis of autism. BMJ. 327(7413). 488-493.doi: 10.1136/bmj.327.7413.488

Barahona-Correa, J. B., Velosa, A., Chainho, A., Lopes, R., Oliveira-Maja, A. J. (2018). Document details - Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for Treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers. 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2018.00027

Bisiacchi, P., Vallesi, A. (2017) Il cervello a lavoro. Nuove prospettive in neuropsicologia. Il Mulino.

Bolognini, N., Vallar, G. ( 2015 ). Stimolare il cervello. Manuale di stimolazione cerebrale non invasiva. Il Mulino.

Carradori, G., Sangiorgi, A. (2017). L’analisi funzionale del comportamento. Principi, metodi e tecniche. Erickson

Casanova, M. F., Sokhadze E. M., Casanova E. L., Li, X. (2020) Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Neuropathological Underpinnings and Clinical Correlations Seminars in Pediatric Neurology. 35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spen.2020.100832

Cohen, L. G., Celnik, P., Pascual-Leone, A., Corwell, B., Falz, L., Dambrosia, J., Honda, M., Sadato, N., Gerloff, C., Català, M. D., Hallet, M. (1997) Functional relevance of cross-modale plasticity in blind humans. Nature, 389, n. 6647, 180-183.

Cole, E. J., Barraclough, N. E., Enticott, P. G. (2018) Investigating Mirror System (MS) Activity in Adults with ASD When Inferring Others’ Intentions Using Both TMS and EEG. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 48(7). 2350-2367 doi: 10.1007/s10803-018-3492-2

Cottini L. (2015), Educazione e riabilitazione del bambino autistico, Carrocci editore, Roma

Courchesne, E., Karns, C. M., Davis, H. R., Ziccardi, R., Carper, R. A., Tigue, Z. D., Chisum, H. J., Moses, P., Pierce, K., Lord, C., Lincol, A. J., Pizzo, S., Schreibman, L. Haas, R. H., Akshoomoff, N. A., Courchesne, R. Y. ( 2001). Unusual brain growth patterns in early life in patients with autistic disorder. An MRI study. Neurology. 57 (2) https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.57.2.245.

Dehaene, S. (2022) Vedere la mente. Il cervello in 100 immagini. Raffaello Cortina Editore.

Desarkar, P., Rajji, T. K., Ameis, S. H., Daskajakis, Z. J. (2015) Assessing and Stabilizing Aberrant Neuroplasticity in Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Potential Role of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 6. 124. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00124

Enticott, P. G., Fitzgibbon, B. M., Kennedy, H. A., Arnold, S. L., Elliot, D., Peachey, A., Zangen, A., Fitzgerald, P. B. (2014) A Double-blind, Randomized Trial of Deep Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) for Autism Spectrum Disorder. Brain Stimulation. 7(2). 206-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2013.10.004

Faggioli, R., Lorenzo, J.S. (2014). Dentro l’autismo. Franco Angeli. Milano.

Filippetti, M., Amico, A. P., Mazzucchelli, M., Perin, C., Cornaggia, C. M., Megna, M., Varalta, V., Fonte, C., Picelli, A., Smania, N. (2021) Tecniche di stimolazione cerebrale non invasiva: la stimolazione elettrica transcranica. Revisione narrativa della letteratura. Springer HealtCare Communications. Giornale Italiano di Medicina Riabilitativa. 36 (3), 23-29 https://springerhealthcare.it/mr/archivio/tecniche-di-stimolazione-cerebrale-non-invasiva-la-stimolazione-elettrica-transcranica-revisione-narrativa-della-letteratura/

Foxx, R. (2021). Tecniche base del metodo comportamentale. Sviluppare le abilità e ridurre i comportamenti problema. Erickson

Franciosi, F. (2017). La Regolazione Emotiva nei Disturbi dello Spettro Autistico. Verso un modello operativo in ambito clinico e psicoeducativo. Edizioni ETS, Pisa.

Greenspan S.I., Wieder S. (2006) Engaging Autism: Using the Floortime Approach to Help Children Relate, Communicate, and Think, Da Capo Lifelong Books, Cambridge

García-González, S., Lugo-Marín, J., Setien-Ramos, I., Gisbert-Gustemps, L., Arteaga-Henríquez, G., Díez-Villoria, E., & Ramos-Quiroga, J. A. (2021). Transcranial direct current stimulation in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 48, 89–109. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.02.017

Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R. B., Mangun, G. R. (2020). Neuroscienze cognitive. Zanichelli

Gomez, L., Vidal, B., Maragoto, C., Morales, L. M., Berrillo, S., Cuesta, H. V., Baez, M., Denis, M., Marin, T., Cabrera, Y., Sanchez, A., Alarcon, C., Selguera, M., Llanez, Y., Dieguez, L., Robinson, M. (2017) Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Short-Term Outcome Study. Behav Sci (Basel). 7(3). 63. doi:10.3390/bs7030063

Guiot, G., Meini, C., Sindelar, M. T., (2012) Autismo e musica. Il modello Floortime nei disturbi della comunicazione e della relazione. Edizione Centro Studi Erickson S.p.A.

Han, Y. MY., Chan, M. MY., Shea, C. KS., Lai, O. L., Krishnamurthy, K., Cheung, M. C., Chan, A. S. (2022) Neurophysiological and behavioral effects of multisession prefrontal tDCS and concurrent cognitive remediation training in patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD): A double-blind, randomized controlled fNIRS study. Brain Stimulation. 15(2). 414-425 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2022.02.004

Hyman, S. L., Levy, S. E., Myers S. M., (2020) Identification, Evaluation, and Management of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.. Clinical Report. Pediatrics, 145 (1): e20193447 . .https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-3447

Hollister Sandberg, E., Spritz, B.L. (2016), Autismo: Piccola guida a tutti gli interventi terapeutici, Il Castello srl, Milano.

Khaleghi, A., Zarafshan, H, Vand, S. R., Mohammadi, M. R (2020) Effects of Non-invasive Neurostimulation on Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review. Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience. 18(4): 527–552 doi: 10.9758/cpn.2020.18.4.527

Kim, A. K., Taghva, A., Peterson, K. A., Liu, C. Y. (2014) Improved autism behaviors after noninvasive cerebral transmagnetic stimulation using customized frequency modulation: follow-up mean 24 months. American Association of Neurology Surgeon. https://docsend.com/view/jcivixa

Kleinhans, N.M., Richards, T., Weaver, K., et al. (2010) Association between amygdala response to emotional faces and social anxiety in autism spectrum disorders, Neuropsychologia, 48(12), 3665-3670. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.07.022

Kosslyn, S. M., Pascual-Leone, A., Felician, O., Camposano, S., Keenan, J. P., Thompson, W. L., Ganis, G., Sukel, K. E., Alpert, N. M. (1999) The role of area 17 in visual imagery: Convergent evidence from PET and rTMS. Science, 284, n. 5411, 167-170 DOI: 10.1126/science.284.5411.167

Làdavas, E., Berti, A. (2020). Neuropsicologia. Quarta edizione. Il Mulino

Lefaucheur JP, Andre-Obadia N, Antal A, Ayache SS, Baeken C, Benninger DH, Garcia-Larrea L. (2014) Evidence-based guidelines on the therapeutic use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) Clinical Neurophysiology.125(11). 2150–2206.

Mazza, M., Valenti, M. (2019) Cognizione sociale e autismo. Modelli comportamentali, implicazioni cliniche e valutazione. FrancoAngeli.

Miniussi, C., Harris, J.A., Ruzzoli, M. (2013). Modelling non invasive brain stimulation in cognitive neuroscience. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37 (8), 1702-1712 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.06.014

Minshew N.J., Keller T.A. (2010), The nature of Brain Dysfunction in Autism: Functional Brain Imaging Studies, in , 23 (2), 124-130.

Ni, HC., Hung, J., Wu, CT., Wu, YY., Chang, CJ., Chen, RS., Huang YZ. (2017) The Impact of Single Session Intermittent Theta-Burst Stimulation over the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex and Posterior Superior Temporal Sulcus on Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2017.00255

Oberman, L. M., Enticott, P. G., Casanova, M. F., Rotenberg, A., Pascual-Leone, A., McCracken, J. T., (2016) Transcranial magnetic stimulation in autism spectrum disorder: Challenges, promise, and roadmap for future research. Autism Res. 9(2), 184–203 doi: 10.1002/aur.1567

Paslely, B. N., Allen, E. A., Freeman, R. D., (2009) State-Dependent Variability of Neuronal Responses to Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation of the Visual Cortex. Neuron. 62 (2), 291-303 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2009.03.012

Paulus, W. (2011) Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES – tDCS; tRNS, tACS) methods. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 21(5), 602–617. doi:10.1080/09602011.2011.557292

Razmkon, A., Maghsoodzadeh, S., Abdollahifard, S. (2022) The effect of deep brain stimulation in children and adults with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Science Direct, 22, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inat.2022.101567

Roccella M. (2020). M. Roccella, Neuropsichiatria dell'infanzia e dell'adolescenza ( II ed). Piccin.

Roccella, M. (2015). I disturbi dello spettro autistico. Carbone Editore, Palermo.

Rossi, S. ( 2020 ). Il Cervello Elettrico. Le sfide della neuromodulazione. Raffaello Cortina Editore.

Ruzzoli, M., Marzi, C. A., Miniussi, C. (2010). The neural mechanisms of the effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation on perception. Journal of Neurophysiology. 103(6), 2982-2989 DOI: 10.1152/jn.01096.2009

Touchette, P. E., Howard, J. S. (1984) Errorless learning: reinforcement contingencies and stimulus control transfer in delayed prompting. Journal of applied behavior analysis. 17 (2). 175-88 doi: 10.1901/jaba.1984.17-175.

Thompson, E. Davis III, White, S.W., Ollendick, T.H. (Eds) (2014), Handbook of Autism and Anxiety, Spinger, New York. Davis III, T. E., White, S. W., & Ollendick, T. H. (Eds.). (2014). Handbook of Autism and Anxiety. Autism and Child Psychopathology Series. Doi:10.1007/978-3-319-06796-4

Venuti P. (2014), Intervento e riabilitazione nei Disturbi dello Spettro Autistico, Carrocci Editore, Roma

Vicari, S., Valeri, G., Fava, L., (2012) L’autismo. Dalla diagnosi al trattamento. Il Mulino, Bologna

Walsh, V., Rushworth, M. (1999) A primer of magnetic stimulation as a tool for neuropsychology. Neuropsychologia. 37(2), 125-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(98)00087-6

Xiao, L., Huo, X., Wand, Y., Li, W., Wang, C., Wang, F., Sun, T. (2023) A bibliometric analysis of global research status and trends in neuromodulation techniques in the treatment of autism spectrum disorder. BMC Psychiatry. 23. 183. doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04666-3

Mandala G, Capone D, Ajovalasit D (2023) Early Diagnosis of Cognitive Impairment in Mild TBI. J Clin Stud Med Case Rep 10: 0156. DOI: 10.24966/CSMC-8801/1000156

Mandalà G., Capone D., Mandalà S. “Prevention project of the chronicity of cognitive-behavioral complications of mild head traumatic brain injury”. AJMCRR 2024; 3(1): 1-9.

G.Mandala. Et al. Rehabilitation of motor and cognitive functions in patients with right cerebral hemisphere stroke. AJMCRR 2023; 2(8): 1-4.

Guger C, Spataro R, Pellas F, Allison B, Heilingher A, et al. (2018) Assessing command-following and communication with vibro-tactile P300 brain computer interface tools in patients with unresponsive Wakefulness syndrome. Frontiers in neuroscience. 12: 423.

Mandala’, G., La Mantia, V. (2022). Alien Hand: bibliographic review and description. Academia Letters, Article 5584.

Spataro R, Xu Y, Xu R, Mandalà G, Allison BZ, Ortner R, Heilinger A, La Bella V and Guger C (2022) How brain-computer interface technology may improve the diagnosis of the disorders of consciousness: A comparative study. Front. Neurosci. 16:959339. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2022.959339

Mandalà G., Sarullo FM, Ficile S, Mandalà S Maltese S, Lupo F, Cataldo P Cognitive impairment in cardiovascular diseases: Preliminary data. AJMCRR 2023; 2(11): 1-2.